Tools of Thought: skills to acquire, expand, and utilize knowledge

There is more to this post than any of us is likely to use. It is like one of those giant rolling carts used by mechanics. Not every tool is used, but it is important that all of them are there in case they are needed. I have been gathering these terms for some time hoping that several of them will be useful. The tools of thought are as vital and as necessary as their physical counterparts. Thinking must be not only defended but strengthened and expanded. It is one of the most important tasks of our age. Time and effort spent in this regard is an essential task. 

The generation of my parents emerged from the World War II era with hopes for themselves and  their children. The G.I. Bill made college education a reality for returning veterans. Many took advantage of this opportunity, and the country benefitted. It was supported by vigorous government and private support for higher education, which had yet to become ensnarled by the financial and ideological chaos we see today. A college education was the gold standard. Degree holders possessed a clear advantage in the job market—their achievement was valued and, while opportunities varied by one’s major, having a higher education often found a happy outcome. My parents were determined that I go to college and I was not one to tell them no. My tools became the tools of thought, and I proceeded to use them to the best of my ability. I can say that my career path after graduation was varied and uneven, but I was able to adapt, contribute, and function using what I had acquired.

There are “native” scholars just as those with a native skill in the physical arts, sometimes many of them. My father-in-law, Lee McCoy, was one of those people who could literally build or fix anything. He once said that if a solution eluded him, he would go to sleep and the next morning the solution would appear. That’s native! Today’s renewed emphasis on the trades is a welcome and needed development. A clear path is being established by Community Colleges and high schools with Career Technical Education (CTE), along with other trade schools and apprenticeship programs. Choose the path where you will go and, most important, encourage your children.

Following are the tools of thought which have occurred to me:

abbreviate, abbreviation: Combinations of letters form codes for many words and phrases to save  time and to communicate more efficiently with one another. These usually exist in standard  forms to aid their common understanding. (see code, spelling, grammar, vocabulary)

abstract: A summary pf the contents of a longer work such as a book, article, or speech.

almanac: An annual calendar containing important dates and statistical information. It can take  the form of a regularly published listing of a set of current information about one or several  subjects. It includes information like astronomical data, weather forecasts, farmers’ planting  dates, tide tables, and other tabular data often arranged according to the calendar.(see table)

amend: The making of minor changes in a text in order to improve it by making it more accurate,  more complete, or more up-to-date. (see emend)

analogy: A comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification. Example: an analogy between the workings of nature and those of human  societies. It can also include a correspondence or partial similarity, as of something which is  comparable to something else in significant respects. It is a device in literary expression, such  as “She’s as blind as a bat.”. (see simile)

analysis, analyze: A detailed examination of anything complex in order to understand its nature  or to determine its essential features: a thorough study featuring a careful and complete view of  the problem. It may also include a statement of such an examination.

annotate, annotation: To add notes (to a text or diagram) giving explanatory notes or comment.  From the standpoint of the reader, to annotate is to make notes on or mark up a text with one’s  thoughts, questions, or realizations while reading. The term annotation refers to the actual notes  one has written during the process of annotating. Annotations may be in the form of a footnote,  or be enclosed by brackets to set them apart.

anthology, anthologize: A published collection of poems, stories, essays, songs, or other works.  (see collection, sourcebook, treasury)

appendix: Supplementary material presented at the end of the book as a separate chapter, giving  extra information. This may be considered optional by some readers, but essential by others.   

archive: An archive is a collection of documents, books, movies, files, or any media, including  digital material, with the aim of preserving them for their historical or personal value. It may be  assembled by a librarian, but may be done by anyone. Museums and libraries frequently  create them. Newspaper archives collect old newspapers, usually all copies of a paper from a  certain date onward. There are movie and music archives. It always a good idea to keep an archive of important files on your computer. The aim here is for completeness—anything which might apply to the subject at hand.

blueprint” (see plan)

browse: a vital supplement to study, where casual perusal of books, recordings, and documents  may yield valuable results. Bookstores as well as libraries present browsing opportunities, as  well as those which can be found online. In an earlier age browsing was aided by the library card catalog. Although these have passed from existence, online databases may be perused in a similar manner, though the tactile and aesthetic experience of card catalogs will be missed by  those who once used them.

calculate, calculation: To calculate is to determine the amount or number of something  mathematically. In another sense it may mean to intend (an action) to have a particular effect.  (see estimate)

calibrate, calibration: As we live in the machine age, machines must be adjusted to operate at  optimal capacity. This is performed by correlating the readings of an instrument with those of a  standard in order to check the instrument’s accuracy. When applied to an experiment, they  may be adjusted to take external factors into account or to allow comparison with other data.

catalog (also a verb): The catalog may exist in book form, but we must remember the mainstay  of library reference in past days, the card catalog. For those historians of information science,  its demise was caused by the explosion of knowledge while, at the same time, the development  of computer technology with its ability to quickly create, replicate, and share entries across  geographical boundaries. It was inevitable. The old card catalogs may still survive in a few  public libraries, but the reference sections of modern universities are now occupied by banks of  computers where searches by author, title, or subject take place. What has been sacrificed is the  ability to browse (see previous reference), with its benefit of spontaneous discovery of that  which was unanticipated. Fortunately, a trip to the library book stacks is a reasonable substitute.  Nicholson Baker, in his book The Size of Thoughts, presents us with a missed opportunity:  rather than scrapping the countless hours of work which led to the creation of a card catalog, it  should have been cataloged as a reference work with its own access number and preserved in  the library holdings as an historical artifact. Sadly, the time to take this action has passed in  most cases.     

chain reference: This pre-digital version of the hyperlink is found in many old Bibles. It starts  with one or more additional references to a cited verse, but quickly branches out to a labyrinth  of additional references, some related and some not so. In this respect it is no different than the  hyperlink other than its speed of operation. For both, discernment must be exercised to keep the  search on track and the path relevant. A word of warning to the manual searcher: keep a supply  of small sheets of scrap paper handy. You will need them as markers when you are still  following the applicable references and must return. This may seem laborious but, if done  thoroughly, the reward is worth the effort. (see cross-reference, hyperlink)    

chart: Used as a noun or a verb, a chart contains information in the form of a table, graph, or  diagram. (see table, graph, diagram)

chronicle, chronology: Establishing time order is important in identifying the  history or sequence of events. It is of key importance in the study of history, but more than that. The arrangement of events in order of their occurrence is critical in the determination of cause  and effect. (see timeline)

code, coding: A system of words, letters, figures, or other symbols substituted for other words,  letters, etc., especially for the purposes of secrecy. Or, in the computing context, codes are  program instructions. For this reason it has assumed importance in computer programming.  (see abbreviation, program, routine)

cohort (also network): This term has assumed increased importance. A cohort is a network of  people with a shared characteristic, usually with a focus on a particular issue or problem. The  term is extensively used in education, business, and science. (see network)

collection, collect, collector: Collecting is a driving ambition for many, and it has its benefits for  society at large as well. There are personal collections: stamps, coins, and books, to name a  few. Then there are those of a scientific or historical nature. Plant samples, rocks and minerals, insects, and other animals occupy natural history collections. A recent development has focused  on more primitive plant life, the lichens which have survived from the early days of our  evolution. The identification of individual species and the habitats which supports them aids in  their preservation. Published collections are important to researchers in many fields. Collection  is a vital function of intellectual life. (see anthology, sourcebook, treasury)

compare/contrast: This is the mother of all essay questions: describe the similarities, followed by  an equally thorough description of the differences. It serves as a key to fully exploring any topic  at hand and is a valuable means of critical thinking.

composition (writing): Of all tools of thought, this is one discernable skill which is closely  related to success. Of the skills and techniques much can (and has) been said, but I will leave  you with one: the process of writing is like cooking a stew or something similar. Time and effort must be expended to reduce and integrate it so that all the elements complement each other in a combined effect. There are several tasks: coordination of sentences and paragraphs so that there is a smooth flow of thought; proof- reading to detect errors in spelling and mechanics; arrangement and re-arrangement of contents; and so forth. The initial product can (and should)  contain an abundance of material, but all of it cannot remain. .Once the rough material is  gathered, the process of reduction begins to prune away that which is superfluous or repetitive.  This may take several passes before the final form is realized. Word processing is of great value  in this process. Write, rewrite, write, rewrite. Famous rewrites include a complete second pass  of T.E. Lawrence’s Seven Pillars of Wisdom after the original manuscript fell off his motorcycle and was never found; and a similar rewrite of Albert Schweitzer’s Philosophy of Civilization after the original was eaten by a goat at his hospital in Lambarene. (see essay, rhetoric)

compromise: The ability to steer a middle path in order to accommodate differing views is a  valuable mental asset. It was illustrated by the philosopher Schopenhauer in “The Porcupines’  Dilemma”: “One cold winter’s day, a number of porcupines huddled together quite closely in  order through their mutual warmth to prevent themselves from being frozen. But they soon felt  The effect of their quills on one another, which made them again move apart.” The porcupines  seek each other out for warmth, Schopenhauer tells us; but in becoming close, they scratch and  prickle one another with their sharp spines, and draw apart in annoyance and pain. What, then, can the porcupines do? Schopenhauer continues: “Now when the need for warmth once more brought them together, the drawback of the quills was repeated so that they were tossed between two evils, until they had discovered the proper distance from which they could best tolerate one another.” The porcupines settle on a compromise: close enough for warmth, with enough distance for minimal scratching. (see negotiate)

conflation: The work of the mind is not without its negative tendencies. An all too common error  of thinking is that of conflation. While it has its legitimate function, the combination of two  ideas into one, it is full of the dangerous potential to combine two or more ideas or facts which have no relation, polluting them both in an erroneous whole. Those who deal in the life of ideas should be especially watchful of this tendency.    

compile, compilation: Here a list, book, or report is produced by assembling content collected  from other sources.

conceive, conception: A mental abstraction, here a plan or idea is formed or devised. This is the  origin by which action and further development may proceed.

condensation: see abstract

conclusion: As the title of Somerset Maugham’s autobiography goes, it is The Summing Up. It is  the final section or the closing part of a piece of writing. If applied to an event or even a series  of events, it is the final action. In science, it is a summary or interpretation of the findings of an  experiment or investigation. Explaining whether the results support or reject the initial  hypothesis and provides a decision based on the evidence gathered. Here the conclusion must  be supported by data. To do so it often includes an additional explanation of patterns which are noticed, relationships to other data, or deviations from expected results.   

conspectus: A rare term, a specialized feature of scholarly research. Rober E Hume  includes a conspectus at the close of his translation of the Upanishads. He describes its function in his  work: “Each individual statement in the Conspectus has prefixed to it the serial number of the entry under which its parallels are recorded.  Statements marked with the same number thus relate to the same phase of the subject and may profitably be compared with one  another.”

coordinate, coordination: Bringing the different elements of an action into a relationship that will  ensure efficiency or harmony. In geometry, coordinates (pronunciation differs) are a group of  numbers used to indicate the position of a point, line, or plane.

corollary: a natural, logical, or obvious result, consequence, or conclusion that follows directly  from a proven statement or existing fact, often without needing further proof. It is often written  as a restatement of what has preceded it, a natural “next step” or an expected outcome of a  preceding idea or event. Applied to geometry or mathematics, it is a theorem or statement that  can be directly and easily deduced from a previously proven theorem. As such, it requires little  or no additional proof as it proceeds from it, requiring little or no additional complex proof to be established. 

criticize, criticism: While it may be an expression of disapproval, its more objective application  is the analysis and judgment of the merits and faults of a literary or artistic work.

cross-check: When piloting an aircraft, the cross-check is essential to monitor the readings  shown by the various instruments and, if visual references are used, to compare these with the  view outside the cockpit. In general use, it involves comparing various figures or information. This may involve the use of an alternate source or method. 

cross-reference: These are frequently employed by authors who wish to direct the reader to  closely related passages in the text or, at times, to footnotes which may appear on the same  page or in a separate section at the end. (see chain reference, hyperlink)

curriculum: An outline of the subjects comprising a course of study in a school or college.   Applied to an individual course of study, it is frequently referred to as a syllabus.

database: A structured set of data held in a computer, especially one that is accessible in various  ways. A database is an organized collection of data or a type of data store based on the use of a  database management system (DBMS). The DBMS is used to store, retrieve, and edit the data.  A database may be stored electronically in a computer, hosted on servers located on the  premises of an organization, off-premises at a data center, or in an organization’s cloud  infrastructure.

defend: In the general sense, to defend is to resist an attack made on someone or something, with the aim of protecting them from harm or danger. It is also used to speak or write in favor of an action or person. In the legal sense, it conducts the case for the party being accused or sued. In the academic sense to “defend” one’s work is to orally present and justify research findings,  arguments, and methods to a faculty committee, demonstrating mastery of the subject and the  ability to think critically and on one’s feet. It’s the formal process where you answer challenging questions from experts to prove the validity and significance of your thesis, dissertation, or paper.

definition, define: A statement of the exact meaning of a word, especially in a dictionary. In  general use it may also refer to clarifying a concept, history, or other account, bringing it in to  improved accuracy of completeness. (see delineation)   

delineation, delineate: Similar to definition, its aim is to describe or portray something precisely.  (see definition)

design: Used as a noun or verb, it is a plan to show the look or function of an object or, more  generally, a plan, concept or idea to describe its workings, usually before it is made.

design thinking: Design thinking is an iterative, human-centered process for creative problem-  solving that focuses on understanding user needs through empathy, defining the core problem,  generating innovative ideas, building physical or digital prototypes, and testing these  solutions. It is a non-linear, collaborative methodology used to develop innovative solutions for  complex, ill-defined (“wicked”) problems by constantly learning from user feedback and  adapting prototypes.

(computer) desktop: So called because once you get used to the vertical orientation of the  computer screen, it resembles a group of things found on a desk. It can contain reference  sources, writing and drawing tools, dictionaries or translation aids, and, most frequently  documents and project folders which are currently being worked on, saving time and, most  important, to keep them where they can be easily and quickly accessed.

diagram: a simplified drawing showing the appearance, structure, or workings of something; a schematic representation. As a verb, to represent something in graphic form. (see table, chart,  graph)

diary: Kept by many, it is a book which keeps a daily record or events and experiences. Several  diaries have been of such historical, philosophical, or biographical value that they were later  published as books. Dag Hammarskjold’s posthumous book Markings, begun in 1925 and  continued until his death in 1961, is an example.

digitize, digital: Those of us who use the tools of thought are the beneficiaries of a revolution  which has placed a world of knowledge at our fingertips. An army of internet archive book  scanners is at work converting texts, some of which may only exist in a single copy and are  prohibited from circulation, to anyone who has internet access (and possibly, money)   Unpublished papers and other documents housed in special collections are now available to a  wider audience. Geographic location is no longer a barrier. As a result, research opportunities  have exploded. A wealth of institutional digitization projects are being carried out to improve  access and the rapid growth of the digital preservation field. There is also digital preservation.  Some analog materials, such as audio and video tapes, are nearing the end of their life cycle,  and it is important to digitize them before deterioration makes the data irretrievable. Library  searches are enabled by the placement of their catalogs online, enabling the searcher to more  efficiently locate the material desired.   

dissertation: A long essay on a particular subject, especially as a requirement for the Doctor of  Philosophy degree.

education: see learning

elaborate, elaboration: To develop carefully arranged parts or details. This may be the “next  step” to further development of your written ideas.

emend: The making of corrections or improvements, often used interchangeably with amend.  Amend, however, means to change or improve something in general, such as a law or a written  document, while emend specifically refers to correcting errors in a written text, making it a  more specialized term limited to literary or scholarly editing. (see amend)

encrypt, encryption: The process of converting readable data, called plaintext, into an  unreadable, scrambled format called ciphertext, using a secret code or mathematical algorithm  and a key. This encoded information can only be converted back to its original readable form  by someone with the correct decryption key. Encryption protects sensitive information from  unauthorized access, ensuring privacy and security for data stored or transmitted over networks.

enquiry: see inquiry

enumerate, enumeration: To mention or list things one by one.

essay: An essay is a piece of writing that explores a specific topic or idea, presenting the author’s  perspective and arguments, supported by evidence and examples; it can be formal or informal  in style and vary in length depending on the purpose and audience. Frequently it consists of an  introductory paragraph, the paragraphs of the body of the essay, and a concluding paragraph..  (see dissertation)

estimate, estimation: see calculate

evaluate, evaluation: Evaluation is a weighing, a calculation and judgment as to various factors  such as the quality, importance, amount, or value of something. It should be added that it is  impossible to evaluate these results without knowing which research methods are used.

excerpt: Used as both a noun and a verb, an excerpt is a short selection from a film, broadcast,  piece of music, or writing. To excerpt is to take such a selection.

exegesis: Used particularly in the study of scripture, it is a critical explanation or interpretation of  a text. (see purport)

extrapolate, extrapolation: Extending the application of (a method or conclusion, especially one  based on statistics) to an unknown situation by assuming that existing trends will continue or  similar methods will be applicable. Extrapolation may take several forms: to predict by  projecting past experience or known data, as in public sentiment on one issue from known  public reaction on others; projecting, extending, or expanding known data or experience into an  area not known or experienced so as to arrive at a usually conjectural knowledge of the  unknown area, as in the use of present trends to construct an image of the future; to infer values  of a variable in an unobserved measurement from values within an already observed measurement.

file: Only a few decades back, these were physical archives, apart from what was stored on media such as magnetic tape. Now the digital file, and its extensive searchability, predominates. While providing vastly improved retrieval, digital access also calls for the  development of technical search skills. A prime example is the replacement of the library card  catalog by public computer terminals, along with the skills demanded of librarians in their assistance of patrons.   

find/replace (digital document): This tool has been given to us by the digital age, and is a  powerful tool when applied to searching and/or correcting the content of a document. It is  amazing to think of how laborious and painstaking this work was in the past. We have, as a  result, a quantum improvement in accuracy and completeness which had been much more  difficult to achieve.

flowchart: While thought of as a feature of computer technology, the flowchart has a wide  application and is greatly useful as a decision making and planning tool. It allows us to employ  logic and the planning process in a visual way. It uses symbols and shapes connected by lines to  show individual steps. The five basic shapes and their function are: the rectangle (symbol for an  individual process); the arrow (the path between processes); the diamond (for when a decision  must be made); the parallelogram (for input and output, representing where data enters or  leaves the system); the oval (the terminal symbol, or the end of the process).

focus/concentration: It describes not only the emphasis of a work, but the energy and dedication  necessary to harvest the full results from the task at hand.

footnote: Footnotes document either reference citations or additional comments relating to what  has been written. They amplify the text and often provide useful and revealing information. On  another note, the preparation of footnotes in a thesis, dissertation, or other scholarly writing  used to be a laborious and time-consuming task for the typist. Thanks to word processing this is  no longer so. Footnote numbers are automatically counted, spacing is automatically calculated,  and several other useful features are provided.

forecast, prediction: Also used as a verb: forecast, predict. We may see it daily in the weather  report, but it is more than that. Computer technology has enhanced our ability to foresee future  trends in many fields. One of its applications in business and industry is inventory forecasting.  Here historical data for supply and demand, combined with external factors which are known or  anticipated, are used to predict future product demand and determine the optimal amount of  inventory to maintain. The goal is to meet demand without either overstocking, which ties up  cash and increases storage costs, or understocking, which leads to out of stock conditions and  lost sales. If performed successfully, cash flow is improved, waste is reduced, and customer  satisfaction in ensured by having the right products are available at the right time. 

formula, formulate, formulation: A mathematical relationship expressed in symbols; also a list of  ingredients or constituents for something, or a method for achieving something. To formulate in  science means to express in a formula. This involves developing a method, plan, or strategy in a  detailed and systematic manner, which includes expressing scientific ideas or theories clearly  and precisely.

format: The form, design, or arrangement of content; the manner in which something is arranged;  also, as a verb, to arrange or put into a format. This is especially applicable in computing. (see template, procedure, rubric)

grammar: Grammar is essential because it ties together the common means by which those who  speak and write a language communicate with each other. Traditional grammar is the concern  here, what you would learn in and English class at school. It is based on rules on the use of  clauses, phrases, and words, with the goal of attaining fluency in writing as well as speaking.  This comes from internalization, which occurs during early childhood for a native language, and from instruction, or exposure to native speakers, when a second language is acquired.  Guidance is provided by reference books describing the grammar of a language. While  grammar deals with the structure and relationships between words, it is supplemented by   “mechanics”, which focuses on the precise and correct arrangement of these words and sentences in written form, together with spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and the use of symbols and numbers. All these work together to ensure clarity and accuracy, making what we write or say comprehensible to others. There are rules which determine what is acceptable, although exceptions occur which give  the speaker or writer a choice of expression. It should be also noted that, despite the objections  of “pure language” fanatics, that languages are fluid and subject to change, so new variations,  new rules, and new hybrids of two or more languages will occur as they evolve. Noam Chomsky proposed Universal Grammar (UG), a theory that humans are born with an innate biological component of the language faculty, a set of universal principles and constraints that all human languages share. All of us possess an innate “language acquisition device” (LAD), a blueprint for grammatical structure. This enables children to acquire any human language from limited linguistic input. It also explains how children can learn complex grammatical rules without explicit instruction, suggesting that a significant portion of language is hardwired into the human brain. (see spelling, vocabulary, abbreviate)

graph: A diagram which shows the relation between variable quantities, usually of two variables. Each is measured along one of a pair of axes at right angles. As a verb, to plot or trace on a graph. (see table, chart, diagram)

handwriting: Also known as penmanship, the teaching and practice of cursive writing is undergoing a resurgence, thanks to a grass roots effort of teachers, parents, and students who  have come to rediscover its value in the face of those who sought to reduce us to a bunch of  keyboard-pecking chickens. The physical/mental process of handwriting slows the participant  down enough to select, summarize, and reframe the content in one’s own words. Neurological  connections are improved, with better filtering and switching between tasks. This connectivity  results in better performance on conceptual questions, as well as long term retention. Lachlan  Brown suggests these and others in his identification of seven characteristics of those who make  handwritten notes at work (which I would apply to many cases in general): (1) they seek  understanding, not just transcription, as they are forced to summarize, paraphrase, and choose;  (2) handwriting taps more of the brain’s long term memory, with a more durable trace later on;  (3) avoiding the practice of task switching which “leaves behind attention residue that degrades  performance on the next task” (i.e. the “switch cost”); (4) “visual verbalization”, thinking in  pictures as well as words; (5) metacognitive retention: summarizing, mapping, and self-  explaining; (6) choosing the “desirable difficulty” of tasks which are harder at encoding: spacing, retrieval practice, and generation which produce stronger learning; (7) having  markings which are idiosyncratic (i.e. margins, arrows, underlining, white spaces, and markings such as those beside key ideas) that result in better retrieval cues.        

highlight (both physical and electronic marking) There are, of course, the pens with brightly  colored ink which mark passages or individual words in a printed text, but there is an electronic  means for digital copy whereby the color or type font may be changed, allowing it to stand out  from the body of the text. 

hyperlink: The hyperlink is the cross reference, or chain reference, on steroids! Like the latter, it  poses the risk of leading the searcher into obscure side paths which detract from the mission of  the search. So, one must be vigilant and pull back to re-orient the search when necessary. (see  chain reference, cross-reference)

hypothesis: see scientific method

idea, ideation: The production of ideas occurs through the process where ideas and solutions are  generated through a variety of means. These include sketching, prototyping, brainstorming, and  a wealth of other ideation techniques. An idea is understood as a basic unit of thought that can  be either visual, concrete, or abstract. Ideation occurs through all stages of a thought cycle,  from innovation to development to actualization. It can be conducted by individuals or groups,  and is considered an essential part of the design process.

image: A representation of the external form in art, but not limited to artistic expression. (see  imagine)  

imagine, imagination: The formation of new ideas, images, or concepts. These may include but  are not limited to external objects present to the physical senses. (see image)

index: An index, frequently appearing in the back of a book, is a list in alphabetical order of  important terms, topics, names, and places together with the corresponding page numbers  where they can be found. It is a useful navigational tool to help readers quickly locate specific  information. It could also apply in a broader sense, as in a card catalog serving as in index to  library holdings and their location, though they are rare these days. 

inquiry, enquiry: There is a slight difference of meaning. Inquiry is the preferred and more  common term in American English, used for both general and formal requests. In British  English, however, enquiry often refers to an informal or general question, where inquiry is  reserved for formal investigations. 

intellectual capital: This term was developed from the important consideration that the assets of  an organization, business or otherwise, do not lie in material or financial assets alone. It refers  to the intangible assets of an organization, including its knowledge, skills, relationships, and  innovations, that contribute to its value and competitive advantage. It encompasses the  collective intelligence and expertise residing within a company, rather than physical or tangible  assets like buildings or equipment. Its components are:

• Human Capital: This refers to the knowledge, skills, experience, and abilities of the employees within an organization. It’s the sum of what individuals can contribute to the company’s success. 
• Structural Capital: This includes the organizational processes, systems, databases, patents, and other intellectual property that the company owns or uses. It’s the infrastructure that supports and enhances human capital. 
• Relational Capital(also known as Customer Capital):This encompasses the relationships and networks that a company has with its customers, suppliers, partners, and other stakeholders. Strong relationships build trust and loyalty, contributing to long-term value. 

  Those who wish to advance in their contribution to whatever employment they have are advised   to focus on the elements here to demonstrate and increase their value to the organization. 

interpolate: I once had a memorable discussion with a school administrator as to whether this  was a real word (I won). It is to insert an idea of a different nature into a set of two ideas (either  related or unrelated) which serves to connect or modify them. In this way, the quality and scope  of the whole is changed. It is a key component of ideation as it demonstrates that ideas do not  necessarily stand alone and are open to modification from additional sources. The gap which  lies between A and idea B is bridged by a hybrid which is an evolution or modification of them  both. Its function is certainly among the higher order of thinking skills.

investigate, investigation: I reject the notion that curiosity killed the cat. It can take the form of a  formal inquiry or systematic study. It can occur in the academic realm, and may also be driven by the need to discover the truth, as in a criminal investigation or in hearings to inform the   policy of government.

journal: Here is a memorable quotation (author unknown): “A journal is a record of experiences  and growth, not a preserve of things well done or said. I am occasionally reminded of a  statement which I have made in conversation and immediately forgotten, which would read  much better than what I put in my journal. It is a ripe, dry fruit of long-past experience which  falls from me easily, without giving pain or pleasure. The charm of the journal must consist in a  certain greenness, through freshness, and not in maturity. Here I cannot afford to be  remembering what I said or did, my scurf [a loose scaly crust coating a surface] cast off, but  what I am and aspire to become.”  Also, a newspaper or magazine that deals with a particular  subject or professional activity. In accounting, journal entries record financial transactions in  an accounting system. They have a unique number, posting date, accounts, description, and  debits/credits.

learning: This general term is included because it touches upon so much that is here. I prefer it to  education because learning is by definition student-centered. A principal fault committed by  teachers is to dwell upon what the teacher needs to do instead of what the student is expected to be able to do. As a retired educator (who has often over-relied upon his own ability), I can  affirm that students will frequently surprise us by what they have managed to gain from a lesson. This may or may not be what the teacher intended, but in most cases should be welcomed.

library: Libraries are not only valuable tools for learning; they are repositories for treasured  knowledge which might otherwise pass into oblivion. The Library of Congress classification system and its cousin the Dewey Decimal aid the search. Card catalogs, once a fixture, are mostly replaced by computer terminals, which may require the assistance of library employees for new users. Libraries open a world of possibilities, and browsing the collection opens even more. A library user may be inspired to set up a personal library, where one has gathered what is valuable in his or her journey. These too may use a system of organization (even a homemade one) to gain better access. As a teacher I witnessed the excitement and curiosity of my students as I took them on a library tour. Our activity was a scavenger hunt for library information. The visit concluded with the receipt of a library card to use in future visits, and many returned, including adult students with their children.. I tell people that the most important part of my college education was my employment in the university library. I acquired a first-hand knowledge of its extensive holdings as well as the system which enabled it to be used to full advantage. Looking back, it was not only valuable; it was essential. I was fortunate indeed. If you have some free time, spending time in the library is a great suggestion.       

list: Many have found the value of the “to do” list as a means of focusing and prioritizing needed  effort. By making a list, one keeps necessary tasks in mind, where they may be accessed and  checked off in order of priority. In my thinking, a list is a necessary first step. (see outline).

local knowledge, institutional knowledge: Those with their “feet on the ground”, having a  practical grasp of procedures, history, personal relations, and a number of other details, are  frequently called upon in the process of planning or decision making. They lend specific  aspects which would otherwise be overlooked, making the outcome more successful as a result. (see intellectual capital)

log: A record of events, maintained in chronological order. Frequently used for ships and  aircraft, it can be applied to other uses as well,

logic: There is formal logic as a branch of philosophy. It includes the study of correct reasoning,  valid inference, and logical truth. It is characterized by investigating how conclusions follow  from premises in a ”topic-neutral manner” independent of the specific subject matter discussed.  Then there is the logic of computer operations. But, on a more practical level, logical reasoning is a prized quality which all thinking people should employ. As logical thinkers, we should be critical of the half truths and outright lies promoted by the uncritical and sensationalist media.  Truth is its victim and we must be its defenders. If the great Bertrand Russell were alive, he would be leading a full-scale assault using the principles of analytic philosophy and logical form he championed during his lifetime. (see scientific method)

map: Maps can be geographical if devoted to natural features. They can be political when  covering the features of civilization. They can also be mental where the interrelation of ideas is  to be explored. I have a fascinating book by Tony Buzan, Maps of the Mind, which uses mapping to discuss various aspects of consciousness.

marker, mark: Whatever method is used, a bookmark, pencil, pen, or an adhesive note, the action  taken serves to indicate the importance of what has been selected and invites the reader to  return for further study, or to record the marked passage in a notebook or other form. (see  highlight)

meditation: I mark my gateway to meditation with a book loaned to me by Rev. Jim Scherfee,  Quaker mystic Thomas Kelly’s A Testament of Devotion. After purchasing my own copy, it has  been read, re-read, and loved through the years. A few years later I attended an introductory  lecture on Maharishi Mahesh Yogi’s Transcendental Meditation, still in its relative infancy  in the U.S. Years later I was sponsored in my initiation by the generosity of my friend Rich Wong, himself a TM teacher. Not to be omitted is my discovery of the writings of Lao  Tzu in the high school library, which, with its bedrock philosophy of Tao, has served as a  touchstone to my conscious process throughout the years/ Finally, as odd as it may sound, were my visits to Chinese gift shops, whose displays, along with burning incense, seemed to evoke  the mystic, meditative spirit of the East. (see mindfulness)

memory: Memory, its improvement, and its retention, are vital subjects. These memory  enhancing techniques are drawn from sources across the web. To these there is added computer  memory, which has greatly expanded that of our own.

• Get enough sleep: avoiding disruption in the natural sleep cycle to stay wide awake and focused during waking hours
• Mnemonics: techniques such as rhymes, acronyms, or visual imagery; associations and patterns meant to aid in the learning process, incredibly useful tools for retaining new information.
• Memory palace: linking information you are trying to recall to such things as the rooms of your home, the houses on street where you live, or other familiar locations
• Exercise
• Meditation: produces positive effects on cognitive issues, including improved focus, creativity, concentration, memory, learning and reasoning 
• Originality and simplification: summarizing the idea or new information in your own words instead of trying to absorb and retain the new information in technical terms or too much detail
• Rehearse, repeat, read out loud  (see mnemonic)

metaphor: A figure of speech which is symbolic of something else, usually employed in an  abstract manner. As such it opens the door to higher level thinking, in addition to making our  speaking and writing more picturesque. (see simile)

mindfulness: We are indebted to Japanese Buddhist philosophy for its powerful concepts of  mind, chief among them being the overarching practice of mindfulness. This is Buddhism as  practice, not necessarily as religion. It has the potential to revitalize whatever path one has  chosen.

These concepts include:

• ikigai: finding your purpose, translated “reason for being,” the Japanese concept of finding personal purpose and fulfillment. By discovering what brings joy, satisfaction, and meaning to your life. By aligning your passions, talents, values, and the needs of the world around you, you can uncover your ikigai. Embracing iIkigai can lead to a greater sense of satisfaction, increased motivation, and a more purpose-driven life.
• shikata ga nai: accepting what you cannot change, or “it cannot be helped,” is a philosophy that promotes acceptance, resilience, and adaptability in the face of adversity. By embracing shikata ga nai, you can reduce stress, increase emotional resilience, and channel your energy towards things you can influence rather than dwelling on the uncontrollable.
• wabi-sabi: an aesthetic and philosophical concept that accepts and appreciates the beauty of imperfection and simplicity. It emphasizes finding beauty in the natural cycles of life, aging, and decay. By embracing wabi-sabi, you can let go of the pursuit of perfection, cultivate an attitude of gratitude for what you have, and find beauty in the ordinary. This powerful concept can nurture acceptance, authenticity, and tranquility in your life.
• kaizen: a term meaning “continuous improvement,” is a philosophy that encourages small, incremental changes over time to achieve significant progress .It promotes the idea that consistent, gradual improvements lead to long-term success. By incorporating Kaizen, you can break down goals into manageable tasks, develop a sense of accomplishment, and steadily improve in different areas of your life. This powerful concept emphasizes consistency, discipline, and the power of small steps.
• kanso is a Japanese concept that emphasizes simplicity, minimalism, and elimination of clutter to create a peaceful and harmonious environment. The concept of kanso can be applied to various aspects of life, including design, home decor, personal routines, and mindset. By embracing kanso, individuals can declutter their lives, reduce stress, and create a space where they feel calm and focused. Kanso emphasizes the beauty in simplicity and promotes a mindset of focusing on what truly matters.
• shinrin-yo-ku: forest bathing: Immersing oneself in the beauty of nature is not a hike, nor is it simply a nature walk. It is a slow walk through nature where you focus on taking in the forest environment with your senses. It is about being present in the present moment. Forest bathing improves immune function, reduces blood pressure, slashes stress hormones, activates the “rest and digest” arm of the nervous system, and improves mental health measures for conditions such as anxiety, depression, anger and fatigue. It draws on three distinct concepts of Japanese culture: yūgen: An awareness of the beauty of the world that cannot be expressed through words. Letting yourself be in awe of the forest is a way of practicing yūgen; komorebi: An appreciation of the interplay of the sun and the forest—specifically, the way the sunlight leaks through the forest canopy. wabi-sabi: a recognition of the beauty of imperfection and ephemerality. Notice how even a tree that’s damaged or otherwise imperfect still has its own allure.
• mushin: Often translated as “no-mind,” it is a mental state characterized by a mind free from thoughts of anger, fear, or ego, particularly during combat or daily life. Like mindfulness itself, it is deeply rooted in Zen Buddhism and Asian martial arts, where it signifies a state of mental clarity, spontaneity, and effortless action. In mushin, one is fully present in the moment, not hindered by conscious thought, allowing for fluid and      instinctive responses.

By embracing these powerful Japanese techniques you can transform your life and unlock personal growth. Each concept offers its own unique benefits, such as finding purpose, accepting circumstances, embracing imperfections, cultivating patience, seeking improvement, accepting change, and mastering skills. By incorporating these concepts into your daily life, you can bring more fulfillment, resilience and balance to your exciting journey of personal transformation. (see meditation)

mnemonic: A mnemonic device, or simply mnemonic, is a memory aid that helps someone recall  information more easily. It works by creating associations between simple, easily remembered  things (like words, images, or phrases) and the more complex information you want to  remember. Essentially, it’s a technique to encode information in a way that makes it easier to  retrieve later. 

model (physical, graphic, digital): As a boy, I loved to collect and assemble model airplanes.  One definition is a three-dimensional representation of an object or structure, usually on a  smaller scale than the original. It is common to see models of proposed buildings or community  developments in model form. It may also mean an example to follow or imitate. As a verb, to  model is to fashion or shape a physical representation, or to a system, procedure, or example as  something to imitate. The teacher of English as a Second Language cannot depend on  translation in teaching a class of multiple language speakers; he or she must model the English  lesson (the “target language”}in such a way that all speakers are able to reproduce the sounds  and comprehend the meaning in a direct manner with no other intervention.

modify, modification (also change, alter, deviate): Many things in their physical or conceptual  form benefit from changes to their original conceptions. For this a variety of vocabulary words  are used to describe the process. Those who create should be alert to the potential for  improvement inherent in this process.

myth: Although sometimes described as mere fables or widely held but false ideas, myths have a far more powerful and significant function. In history, culture, or religion, myths concern the  early history of a people or the explanation of natural or social phenomenon. Myths typically  precede philosophy and religion, and typically involve supernatural beings or events. As such, it  may be difficult to separate them from that which has developed (“de-mythologize”), but their  importance cannot be dismissed or underestimated. Stith Thompson’s Motif-Index of Folk  Liberature (1955) is considered the international key to traditional material. As I heard the  story, he engaged students to record references on 3×5 note cards which were then organized  into categories for the six volume series.

negotiate, negotiation, negotiable: “Everything is negotiable”, or so it is said. It is an attempt to  bring about an agreement or compromise by discussion, or perhaps more visually, to find a way  over an obstacle or by traveling a difficult path.  (see compromise)

network: Applied to machine transmission of data, a network is characterized by established  rules that specify how to format, send and receive data so that computers, servers, routers and other machines can communicate despite differences in their underlying infrastructures, designs  or standards. Applied to human interaction, networking has occurred throughout history. Examples include spy networks, various societies (secret and public) the Pony Express, and non-digital transmission such as telegraph, radio, and television. The phrase “circle of acquaintances” comes to mind. (see cohort)

note: Aa brief record of facts, topics, or thoughts, often as an aid to memory; a short informal  letter or written message; as a verb, to notice or pay particular attention to something. Notes and  Queries is a quarterly journal published since the mid-19^th century. It contains notes, book  reviews, readers’ queries and replies, and features short articles related to “English language and  literature, lexicography, history, and scholarly antiquarianism”.

notebook: A book with lined or blank pages for writing or drawing, or a compact, portable  personal computer.

objective, goal, purpose: The end which is sought, frequently of a long-term nature.

.organize, organization: As a verb, to arrange into a systematic or structured whole, with  organization the act of doing so. Applied to groups, it is the formation of a labor union or  political group. Used as a noun, it describes such a group.  

outline: It can be said that the outline is a further development of the list, with the added  refinement of subtopics to the main entries. Their value is in presenting the structure of the  topic at hand with its divisions and subdivisions. These are frequently identified, after the main  entry, by a series of numbers and letters in increasing refinement as needed: in a formal outline, Roman numerals (I, II, III), then capital letters (A, B, C), then Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3), and finally lowercase letters (a, b, c). This hierarchical structure helps to organize and focus information from broad main topics down to more specific details. It is a key tool for organizing thoughts as a precursor to writing, and can assist in generating useful ideas as the scheme is worked out. (see list)

philosophy: Of the academic disciplines, philosophy is the king of them all. It teaches us to “think about thinking”. Regardless of whether or not we agree with the philosophy in question, the goal is to grasp the argument and, beyond that, to compare it to those which are similar or in opposition. Philosophy encompasses the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, along with the study of the theoretical basis of a particular branch of knowledge or experience, such as the philosophy of science. At a time when universities are dissolving their departments of philosophy and dismissing professors, this unfortunate turn of events will make intellectual life poorer as a result. We can rely upon reports that graduate study of fields such as law is strengthened by a grounding in philosophy.

plan: A plan may be in the form of written instructions or graphic details as in the design of a  building or other structure (as in a blueprint). It may be defined as (1) a detailed proposal for  doing or achieving something; (2) an intention or decision about what one is going to do; (3) an  advance decision or arrangement; (4) a design of something to be built. Regardless of its form,  the value is the same: to exercise thought, and therefore, control, prior to the act of execution  itself. Remember the adage “those who fail to plan, plan to fail.”

postscript: The postscript to a document has a separate identity. It is an additional statement that further information. It is frequently included to present later findings or developments after the composition of the main document, and may take two forms: a chapter-length addition at the end of the main body of the text, or a brief note within the main body, either in parenthesis or at  the bottom of the page, like a footnote, with the abbreviation P.S.

predict, forecast, project (accent on end syllable): While there is an element of precognition in  literary sources, there is much that is down to earth in the practice of those who employ this  skill. To cite one example, in the inventory control world, the demand history of an item is analyzed to determine the timing and amount of a resupply. This could be further informed by seasonal variations, shifts in customer demand, the advent of improved products, and the like. A separate set of factors would be consulted in the case of historical, economic, or political forecasting. The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has made great strides in the forecasting of weather, and constant improvements are underway in the prediction of tornadoes, hurricanes, tsunamis, and earthquakes. We all yearn for something to guide our steps, and the means to do so is becoming more within our reach.   

preface: An introduction to a book, typically stating its subject, scope, or aims, or as a verb, to  provide such an introduction..

procedure, standard operating procedure (SOP): This is a characteristic of many fields of work,  especially the military and industrial areas. A uniform series of steps, or guideposts, or rubrics,  serves to guide those who must perform these tasks, and is especially helpful to those who are  being trained or who are performing the task for the first time. (see rubric)

program, nested program: In computer science, there is the program, and then there is the nested  program, where a function is completely contained within the parent program. Here a routine triggers other subroutines as it is carried out, often continuing to other subordinate actions. To be successful, the nested operation must be carefully designed and tested, requiring attention to detail in its development. As a verb, it is the writing of computer code (coding). The concept applies to operations in general, as well as a written description, such as the program for a music concert. (see code, routine). 

project: An individual or collaborative enterprise that is carefully planned to achieve a particular  aim. Among teaching methods is project-based learning (PBL), where students acquire knowledge and skill by working over an extended period to investigate and respond to real-  world questions, problems, or challenges. This approach activates engagement, critical  thinking, and collaboration. It moves beyond traditional rote learning to foster deeper understanding and the development of important life skills.  

proposal, propose: A plan or suggestion, usually in written form, for consideration or discussion  by others, and the process for so doing.

proverb: A proverb is a commonly known saying that expresses a general truth, piece of advice, or cultural wisdom. They often metaphorical and use simple language, which makes them easy to  remember and pass down through generations. Proverbs reflect common experiences, beliefs, or  values of a society. These are widely used in literature, conversation, and speeches to convey  insights concisely. Even though they vary across cultures, they often express universal human  experiences.

purport: A unique term applied to spiritual literature, it is the meaning or substance of something.  Although prevalent in some schools of Hinduism, it has the potential to be applied to any tradition. Serving as an introduction, it directs the inquiry of the reader as the passage which  follows is considered. (see exegesis)

query: A question about something, especially in order to express doubt about it or to check its  validity or accuracy. As a verb, it is the act of doing so. Applied to the internet, it is the initiation of a search for specific information. It also refers to an inquiry to an editor on a proposed article or book. (see note)

question: The question plays a unique role in language. It creates a disequilibrium which, if  posed skillfully, motivates the reader or listener into creating a response. It is a favorite of teachers as well as an oratorial device. It disturbs but also motivates. Our thinking, our written expression, and our conversation is much poorer if questioning is absent.

quotation, quote: We know what a quotation is but should also consider what it does: a phrase or  passage from a book, poem, play used to illustrate or support a theme or an argument. When  quotations are used, they add depth and richness to the discussion in addition to making the  point at hand more authentic and meaningful. Several notable collections have been published,  among them Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations, which has its place on my library shelf. I also have  a 3×5 card file of quotations which stood out to me in my reading (and sometimes listening). It  contains quotations on many subjects from many sources gathered over the years. One day I  hope to post selections from it on this site. 

reading: I begin on a personal note: As a high school student, I frequented the downtown library  in my hometown of Long Beach. In addition to its extensive holdings, the building itself was  notable for its history, having been constructed with funds from legendary philanthropist  Andrew Carnegie. His terms were “I’ll construct the building, you fill it with books” (or words  to that effect). Entering and leaving the library, I saw old men on park benches passing the time  reading books. Now I am one of them. There is much which has been written on the subject of reading, including methods for “speed reading”. Without going into this discussion, it is sufficient to say that one’s eyes should grasp groups of words, not individual words, while passing through the text, but should not exceed the grasp of what is being read. A tortured, pressure-laden march through the material makes it unenjoyable as well as unproductive. Relaxation is an important aid to comprehension. As an analogy: loose soil absorbs rain readily; hard-packed soil allows it to run off. I have taken to heart several of author Walter Pitkin’s observations in his book The Art of Rapid Reading.. Among them: Read wholes, not parts; sentences, not words, broad meaning, then  details. Do not move your eyes any faster than you can move your mind. Slow down if there are  things you can think of which are relative to the subject. Maintain focus, for serious reading  demands a whole mind. If there are facts underlying the subject at hand, have them available as  you read. Take notes where needed, and link them up with previous notes you have made on the  subject. Do your reading at the time of day it is most efficient, along with proper posture and  lighting. Unless absolutely necessary, never read anything in which you are not sufficiently  interested to pursue with zest. Strike a balance between the two extremes of slow but thoroughly comprehending and fast but poorly organized. Above all, relax. As Pitkin writes, “better slow and sure, if the price of speed is superficiality.” More specific strategies are discussed in the entry on scanning.

recapitulate, recapitulation: The act of summarizing and restating the main points of something.

recension: A revised edition of a text. This is frequently referred to as a critical revision, where  the work of a scholar or scholars has been applied. (see restatement, revision)

reflection, reflect: Reflection in writing is the act of including analysis or perspective on the text  within the text itself. It’s a technique that is used to examine and interpret a passage or event  described in a written work, and can be either a literary device or a tool for self-analysis. In a  more philosophical sense, it means to deliberately think about one’s own experiences, actions,  and thoughts to gain learning and improve. Synonyms include consideration, contemplation,  idea, impression, meditation, observation, opinion, rumination, view. In physics and mathematics, it’s a type of geometric transformation where a point is mapped to another point on the opposite side of a line or plane. 

reframing: This term comes from the practice known as Neuro Linguistic Programming, for  which I will include a direct quotation: “In NLP, reframing is a fundamental technique for  changing the meaning of a statement, situation, or behavior by altering its context or  representation. By shifting the ‘frame’—the perspective or context—new meanings become  apparent, leading to different responses and a more resourceful mindset. There are two main types: content reframing, which changes the meaning of the statement itself, and context  reframing, which shifts the situation into a different context to alter its significance. 

  How NLP reframing works

• Altering Perception:

  Reframing operates on the principle that meaning is context-dependent. By changing the   context or the frame through which we view information, we can change its perceived meaning. 

• Finding New Meanings:

  The goal is to help someone experience their actions or a problem from a different perspective,   potentially unlocking new possibilities and enhancing resourcefulness. 

• Identifying Positive Intentions:

Reframing can also involve separating a problematic behavior from the positive intention of the  internal ‘part’ or program responsible for it, leading to new choices for behavior that fulfill the  positive intention.” 

restatement, restate: The act of stating something again or differently, with the purpose of  making it clearer or more convincing. (see recension)

revision, revise: A revised edition or form of something, as in a revision of a philosophical work,  either by the original author or by another. It literally means to ‘see again’, looking at something from a fresh, critical perspective. Here the original author may engage an ongoing process of rethinking the work: reconsidering arguments, reviewing evidence, refining purpose, reorganizing the presentation, improving the prose. (see recension)

rhetoric: The classic definition of rhetoric was made by Aristotle, who described it as the art or  faculty of discovering the best possible means of persuasion in regard to any subject whatsoever. He pointed out that this is the property of no other discipline, each of which is concerned with its own particular province. It relies, whether in speaking or writing, on figures of speech or other compositional techniques. (see composition)

routine: A series of actions followed regularly as a fixed program, followed as part of a regular procedure rather than for a special reason. This may include daily, weekly, or other periodic actions performed regularly or at specified intervals. Routines build positive results and stable operations due to their regular nature. In computing, a routine is a portion of code within a larger program. It is a reusable block of code that performs a specific task and can be often used interchangeably. This allows the developer to write code once and use it multiple times. (see program)

rubric: In the religious field, a rubric is a direction in a liturgical book as to how a church service  should be conducted. In the field of education, it is a type of scoring guide that assesses and  articulates specific components and expectations for an assignment. Rubrics can be used for  grading a variety of assignments, such as research papers, group projects, portfolios, and  presentations. This contributes to fair and objective grading. (see template, procedure, format)

sample: A sample is a small, representative portion taken from a larger group or whole, used to  understand the characteristics of the entire thing. It can refer to a physical entity, such as a  water or soil sample, or a survey of voters to predict how the whole population feels on a  candidate or issue and will vote. In a general sense, the term can refer to an example of  something.

scale, scaling: A uniform measurement seen in a variety of applications: maps, temperature  readings, weight, music notation, chemical concentration, and others. Photography uses scales  for depth of field, exposure (the f-stop), and the zone system developed by Ansel Adams and  Fred Archer for black and white photo composition. Scales are widely used for surveys to rate  personal opinions on an issue or the performance of a business or organization (“on a scale of 1  to 10…”) Scaling is the process of developing such measurement relationships, such as an  architect scaling a building by multiplying its real-world dimensions by a scale factor to build a  model.   

scanning, skimming, surveying: This application of the skill of reading includes methods of   passing through the text to gain the most information possible in an efficient way. One strategy  is to make a first pass through the text at a leisurely but deliberate pace, taking note of specific  passages upon which to focus during a second reading. This allows the reader to relax, without  feeling responsible to master everything on the first pass. The use of adhesive notes is a useful  way to mark material for more detailed study. An alternative is the much-used SQ3R reading  comprehension method taught in many schools and businesses. It is a powerful active reading  and study technique that enhances comprehension and retention. By actively engaging with the  text before, during, and after reading, students can improve their understanding and recall of  material. named for its five steps: survey, question, read, recite, and review. I have come to  favor an abbreviated form, one taught to employees of the U.S. government, SPD: survey, pre-read, and decide. Deciding involves four decisions, each increasing in concentration: skip altogether, skim for anything of value (and mark with an adhesive note), read thoroughly, or conduct detailed study if the section is worth remembering, again marking important passages, taking notes, memorization, re-reading, even outlining or summarizing orally. This will yield good results and save the reader much time and unnecessary effort. Whichever method is chosen will enable the reader to actively engage with the text to extract what is meaningful and useful. (see reading)

schema: a representation of a plan or theory in the form of an outline or model. In philosophy, it  is a conception of what is common to all members of a class, forming a general or essential type  or form.

scientific method: I first learned about the scientific method in Mr. Howard Genrich’s eighth  grade science class. Its importance transcends science alone. Sure, I learned how to employ a  hypothesis, which could (or could not) lead to a theory, but here is where logic finds its  application. This is not the abstract logic of philosophy; it is here where we engage with the  world of observation and attempt to apply thinking to determine the nature of what we observe.  It is called objectivism, stripping our observed facts of any “romantic” (for want of a better  word) notions. In an era of media influence, conspiracy theories, and multiple news sources of varying political persuasions, it is a key objective to sift relentlessly for the facts to fulfill the  goal of objectivity. This must be a passionate drive with us. It is not an exaggeration to say that  our survival as a species may depend on it.

schematic: A schematic diagram aims to be simple. It representation a system’s components and  its connections, using standardized symbols, opposed to its physical layout or actual parts. It  makes electrical circuits and other systems easier to understand as well as to troubleshoot,   design, and build. 

segue: Usually employed in music and film, a segue is an uninterrupted transition from one scene  to another.

selection(s): An editorial action where there is a careful choosing of selections which are the  best, the most suitable, or the most characteristic of a preexisting work.

semiotics: The study of signs and symbols and their meanings. It explores how words, images,  gestures, or other forms of communication are produced, interpreted, and used to create  meaning. It seeks to analyze what things mean and how we make sense of them, beyond  language itself. It consists of two parts, the signifier (the form of the sign itself) and the signified (the concept or idea it represents).   

set: A set is a group of things which belong together, frequently used in mathematics.

shorthand: Shorthand is an abbreviated symbolic writing method that increases speed, compared  to longhand. It has several forms, using abbreviations and symbols. Its original forms were  devised in 1837 by Sir Isaac Pitman and in 1888 by John R. Gregg (1867–1948). My mother  was skilled in shorthand transcription and I remember seeing those mysterious marks on her  steno pad. In addition to capturing speech, there are specialized notations used in mathematics,  chemistry, and computing for compact expression. It is a way of referring to a lengthier  description with a shorter one. 

simile: The a comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind, used to make it  more emphatic or vivid, usually employing “as a” (“old as the hills”, etc.) (see analogy,  metaphor)

sourcebook: A collection of writings on a subject, particularly notable excerpts from its  literature, as in a sourcebook of Chinese philosophy. (see anthology, collection, treasury)

spelling: Among grammar skills, spelling is the process of writing words using in their correct,  conventional order, known as orthography. It converts speech into written form by using letters  to represent the sounds in a word. It is crucial for literacy, as it is a visibly represents a person’s  understanding of word structure and how letters represent speech sounds. A word of warning:  our over-reliance on abbreviation in digital messaging runs the risk of the decline of spelling  skill, caused by ignorance of proper spelling coupled with just plain laziness. Support  classroom instruction and spelling bees to prevent our descent into illiteracy. (see grammar, code, abbreviate, grammar, vocabulary)

spreadsheet: Spreadsheets have a wide application in the digital age. The arrangement of data in  rows and columns of a grid can be manipulated and used in calculations. This may be done  rapidly by the insertion of variables. It is possible to quickly organize, analyze, and manipulate  data, as well as to compare and save the results.    

stationery: Tools of thought must have their supplies in order to carry out their function. This  term is a useful description of the materials needed to carry out the task. It is no  coincidence that those who engage in the tools of thought may also be frequent visitors to stationery stores.

strategy, strategize: A plan of action to achieve a desired goal and, as a verb, to formulate that  plan.

study: Study methods are an important tool to jump start the learning process. Many methods of  study have been published. My only wish is that I could have benefitted more from increased  diligence. Nevertheless, here I am as a lover of knowledge and the learning process.  (see  reading, scanning)

summary/summarize: A brief account, usually at the end of a presentation, of its key points  and, as a verb, the act of carrying out a summation. Summaries are frequently brief, but then  there is Somerset Maugham’s literary autobiography, titled The Summing Up.  

supplement: A document which enhances, updates, or adds to the completeness of the original  and, as a verb, the process of doing so.

syllabus: An outline of topics for an individual course of study. (see curriculum)

symbol, symbolize, symbology: In literature, a symbol is a person, object, situation, or even a  color that represents an abstract idea, concept, or emotion beyond its literal meaning. Symbolism uses these concrete elements to convey deeper layers of meaning, enriching the  reader’s understanding of the work’s complexity and artistic intent. Symbols also serve as marks  or characters used as to represent an object, function, or process, such as the letter standing for a  chemical element or a character in musical notation. Suzanne K. Langer’s Philosophy in a New Key offers a definition of art grounded on the idea that art is the “creation of symbolic forms of  human feeling”. This thesis is constructed from the theory of the symbolic function of the human mind.

synthesis, synthesize: the combination of ideas to form a theory or system. Often contrasted with  analysis: “the synthesis of intellect and emotion in his work”; “The ideology represented a  synthesis of certain ideas.” In grammar, the process of making compound and derivative words.  In linguistics, the use of  inflected forms rather than word order to express grammatical  structure. In chemistry, the production of chemical compounds by reaction from simpler  materials: In the philosophy of Hegel, the final stage in the process of dialectical reasoning, in  which a new idea resolves the conflict between thesis and antithesis.

system: A set of things working together as parts of a mechanism or an interconnecting network,  forming a complex whole; aset of principles or procedures according to which something is  done; an organized scheme or method.

table, tabulate: A table may be presented in several forms. We know the table of contents of a  book. Information may be presented in a tabular form for convenience in reading it.  Researchers may include a table of correspondences where related information is compared and  contrasted. Computer databases are based on a database table definition which specifies the structure and properties of a table in a database. It is a set of rules that governs how data is organized, stored, and managed, but does not contain the data itself. All of the preceding may be described as tabular representation. (see chart, graph, diagram)

taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of classification, or a system for naming and organizing  things into groups based on shared characteristics. We are most familiar with it in biology,  where it is used to classify organisms based on their shared characteristics, and, more recently,  their evolutionary relationships. In this regard, taxonomy can change as new research is  conducted, with the regrouping of family groups which may include Domain, Kingdom,  Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, or Species, and with it, the assignment of new names. Taxonomy can apply to any field, such as computing, where it is used to structure and organize digital content for better retrieval and navigation. Those who have worked in education are familiar with Benjamin Bloom’s 1956 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, used by educators to guide lesson planning, curriculum development, and assessment. It has been reworked into several applications by other writers, but its basic framework remains the same. It contains six levels from basic knowledge recall to complex creation, with verbs associated with each level in increasing complexity. These are, in ascending order, Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating, and Creating. 

template: Although also applied to physical and scientific processes, a writing template is a guide  to be followed while writing a memo, an article, a book, a letter, essay, etc. Its function is to  help the writer follow a specific structure and write faster. Writing templates save time and  improve efficiency. A template might also be known as a matrix, an environment in which  something develops. (see format, rubric, procedure)

theory: see scientific method

thesis: A thesis can take one of two forms, either a statement or theory that is set forth to be  proved, or a long essay involving personal research by a candidate for a degree. In either case it  commonly begins with the main idea that the writer is trying to prove, which serves as a  summary of the entire argument. (see scientific method)

timeline: Among the books in my personal library is a curious volume published in Great Britain  in the late 1800s titled Overall’s Dictionary of Chronology. Something must have led its author  to assemble the most complete data he could find on when something happened, typically its  first occurrence. Time values document change and development, and are important in  establishing an accurate picture of the subject at hand. In the study of history, a timeline helps  to understand the sequence and relationships between different historical events. It  may also  extend into the future, providing a schedule for when a process or procedure may be carried out.  This, of course, may include one’s personal plan for action, and may serve as a useful tool to  motivate and track the actions to be taken toward the desired goal. The digital age allows us to  employ templates to create timelines using artistic graphics. (see chronology, template)  

translate, translation: I was privileged to view the enduring symbol of translation, the Rosetta  Stone, in a visit to the British Museum. It is inscribed with three versions of a decree issued in  196 BC during the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, and resulted in the ability to finally decipher  hieroglyphics. There is a reason why the study of another language is among the foundations of  the classical model of education. Like other skills in this mode of education, critical thinking  ability is developed. One not only learns to speak, read, and write in the “target” language, he  or she may acquire the facility of thinking in that language by assuming the culture within  which that language exists. My linguistics professor explained that a symptom of the loss of this  ability as when one no longer dreamed in the other language, signaling a loss of integration. The digital age allows us to employ a constantly developing technology to translate simply by keeping one’s computer open to the selected service while reading a text in the other language.

transliterate, transliteration: Used to write a letter or word in one language using the closest  corresponding letters of the alphabet of a different language.

treasury: There are treasuries for precious metals (Ft Knox), but there are also treasuries of culture, of literature, of history. These may take the form of a volume in which the compiler has selected the finest examples of, for example, poetry. This is exemplified by the 1861 publication of Palgrave’s Golden Treasury. Curiously enough, the book continues to be published in new editions, still under Palgrave’s name. These reproduce Palgrave’s original selections and notes, but usually include a supplement of more recent poems. It can be said that especially fine, important, or meaningful examples of any subject at hand may be subjected to the process of including them in a treasury. (see anthology, collection, sourcebook)

triangulate, triangulation: In geometry, the triangle is known for its strength and stability. As  such, it has conceptual as well as physical use.  For example, triangulation in research uses  multiple sources (data, methods, theories, even individual investigators) to address a research  question. This method serves to enhance the validity and credibility of one’s findings, in  addition to identifying the presence of any biases which may detract from the desired outcome.  It captures the complexity of an inquiry by its inclusion of multiple sources.

truncate, truncation: to limit an overly long or cumbersome passage, table, list, etc. to emphasize  the most essential elements and to make it more accessible to the reader

vocabulary: Vocabulary building is an important aid to written and spoken expression, along  with spelling and knowledge in general. There are several ways to build vocabulary: read  widely to encounter new words in the context in which they are used. Study word families  having a common root. Use word learning strategies such as word maps, games, riddles, and  songs. Consistent practice and usage of new words will aid in long-term retention. Keep a  notebook of new words you encounter. Never pass by a word that you should look up, even an  obscure one. (see grammar, spelling, abbreviate)    

visualization/visualize: The creation of mental images either to enhance the reading experience  (especially fiction) or to bring a desired objective to reality.

word root: A word root is the building block of a word.  It contains its essential meaning and  cannot be broken down further. Combined with prefixes and suffixes, they to form complete  words. Understanding word roots is a powerful vocabulary-building strategy, as it allows you to  decipher the meaning of unfamiliar words as they are the foundation upon which these words  are constructed. Words that share the same root are called a word family. On a personal note, I  thank my seventh grade English teacher, Mr. James Keller, for introducing me to the powerful  strategy for vocabulary building through the knowledge of Greek and Latin word roots.  

writing: see composition